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#microbiology #bacteriology #bacteria #nucleoid #plasmid #genome #mycology #parasitology #virology Nucleoid The nucleoid is the area of the cytoplasm in which DNA is located. The DNA of most prokaryotes is a single, circular molecule; however, there are important exceptions. For instance, the genome of Vibrio cholerae, the causative agent of cholera, is composed of two circular chromosomes. Borrelia burgdorferi, the spirochete that causes Lyme disease, is composed of a linear chromosome and multiple circular and linear plasmids . The size of bacterial genomes varies widely, with the smallest genome containing just over 130 genes and the largest containing approximately 11,600 genes. By contrast, human DNA has approximately 25,000 genes. Because the bacterial nucleoid contains no nuclear membrane, no nucleolus, no mitotic spindle, and no histones, there is little resemblance to the eukaryotic nucleus. One major difference between bacterial DNA and eukaryotic DNA is that bacterial DNA has no introns, whereas eukaryotic DNA does. Plasmids Plasmids are doublestranded, circular DNA molecules that are capable of replicating independently of the bacterial chromosome. Although plasmids are usually extrachromosomal, they can be integrated into the bacterial chromosome. Plasmids occur in both grampositive and gramnegative bacteria, and several different types of plasmids can exist in one cell: 1. Transmissible plasmids can be transferred from cell to cell by conjugation (see Chapter 4 for a discussion of conjugation). They are large (molecular weight [MW] 40–100 million) since they contain about a dozen genes responsible for synthesis of the sex pilus and for the enzymes required for transfer. They are usually present in a few (1–3) copies per cell. 2. Nontransmissible plasmids are small (MW 3–20 million) since they do not contain the transfer genes; they are frequently present in many (10–60) copies per cell. Plasmids carry the genes for the following functions and structures of medical importance: 1. Antibiotic resistance, which is mediated by a variety of enzymes, such as the βlactamase of S. aureus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. 2. Exotoxins, such as the enterotoxins of E. coli, anthrax toxin of Bacillus anthracis, exfoliative toxin of S. aureus, and tetanus toxin of Clostridium tetani. 3. Pili (fimbriae), which mediate the adherence of bacteria to epithelial cells. 4. Resistance to heavy metals, such as mercury, the active component of some antiseptics (e.g., Merthiolate and Mercurochrome), and silver, which is mediated by a reductase enzyme. 5. Resistance to ultraviolet light, which is mediated by DNA repair enzymes. 6. Bacteriocins, which are toxic proteins produced by certain bacteria that are lethal for other bacteria. Two common mechanisms of action of bacteriocins are (i) degradation of bacterial cell membranes by producing pores in the membrane and (ii) degradation of bacterial DNA by deoxyribonuclease (DNase). Examples of bacteriocins produced by medically important bacteria are colicins made by E. coli, pyocins made by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and lysostaphins made by S. aureus. Bacteria that produce bacteriocins have a selective advantage in the competition for food sources over those that do not. The medical importance of bacteriocins is that they may be useful in treating infections caused by antibioticresistant bacteria.